Addiction 1.. Drinking heavily before going to out is motivated by high drink prices in bars, extending the time being drunk, social anxiety reduction, group affiliation binding and socializing. Wells, S., Graham, K. and Purcell, J. (2008). Policy implications of the widespread practice of 'pre-drinking' or 'pre-gaming' before going to public drinking establishments—are current prevention strategies backfiring? Addiction, 104(1), 4-9.   Gradual dose reduction of benzodiazepine combined with counseling is more efficacious in stopping use than gradual dose reduction alone. Using other medications as a substitute is not as effective as gradual dose reduction alone. Parr, J.M., Kavanagh, D.J., Cahill, L., Mitchell, G., Young, R. M. (2008). Effectiveness of current treatment approaches for benzodiazepine discontinuation: a meta-analysis. Addiction, 104(1), 13-24.     National Alcohol Survey data from 1979-2005 shows that drinking has declines among 26+ year olds; however, among 18-25 year olds both amount and frequency of 5+ days of drinking have increased. Woman born between 1956-1960 drink heavy compared to those who were born before 1956 and after 1960.  Kerr, W.C., Greenfield, T. K., Bond, J., Yu, Y., and Rehm, J. (2008). Age–period–cohort modelling of alcohol volume and heavy drinking days in the US National Alcohol Surveys: divergence in younger and older adult trends. Addiction, 104(1), 27-37. Adolescents who show externalizing behavior at age 14 and delayed puberty, 50% reported having used cannabis and 21%  used amphetamine and cannabis by age 21. Hayatbakhsh, M.R., Najman, J.M., McGee, T.R., Bor, W. and O'Callaghan, M.J. (2008).  Early pubertal maturation in the prediction of early adult substance use: a prospective study. Addiction, 104(1), 59-66. Childhood and adolescent alcohol drinking on up to age 20 explains 43% of male and 31% of female problem drinking at age 42; 31% of male and 19% of female problem alcohol drinking at age 27; see Pitkanen, T., Kokko, K., Lyyra, A.-L., and Pulkkinen, L. (2008). A developmental approach to alcohol drinking behaviour in adulthood: a follow-up study from age 8 to age 42. Addiction, 103(s1), 48-68. There is a relation between engaging in sports and drug and alcohol use during adolescence and age 18 and alcohol abuse at age 28. Children at age 12 (who were heavily engaged in sports, were aggressive and showed behavioral problems) would engage in sports, and above average abuse of alcohol and other drugs at age 18; see Peck, S. C., Vida, M. and Eccles, J. S. (2008). Adolescent pathways to adulthood drinking: sport activity involvement is not necessarily risky or protective. Addiction, 103(s1), 69-83. Parent's drinking, taking risks, cigarettes and marijuana smoking, truancy (theft in H.S.), vandalism, property damage,  predicts alcohol abuse by age 35. College preparation predicts more heavy drinking at age 22 but reduced number of episodes of heavy drinking by mid-life. These effects are stronger in males; see Merline, A., Jager, J., and Schulenberg, J. E. (2008). Adolescent risk factors for adult alcohol use and abuse: stability and change of predictive value across early and middle adulthood. Addiction, 103(s1), 84-99. Drinking heavily before going to out is motivated by high drink prices in bars, extending the time being drunk, social anxiety reduction, group affiliation binding and socializing. Wells, S., Graham, K. and Purcell, J. (2008). Policy implications of the widespread practice of 'pre-drinking' or 'pre-gaming' before going to public drinking establishments—are current prevention strategies backfiring? Addiction, 104(1), 4-9.   Gradual dose reduction of benzodiazepine combined with counseling is more efficacious in stopping use than gradual dose reduction alone. Using other medications as a substitute is not as effective as gradual dose reduction alone. Parr, J.M., Kavanagh, D.J., Cahill, L., Mitchell, G., Young, R. M. (2008). Effectiveness of current treatment approaches for benzodiazepine discontinuation: a meta-analysis. Addiction, 104(1), 13-24.     National Alcohol Survey data from 1979-2005 shows that drinking has declines among 26+ year olds; however, among 18-25 year olds both amount and frequency of 5+ days of drinking have increased. Woman born between 1956-1960 drink heavy compared to those who were born before 1956 and after 1960.   Kerr, W.C., Greenfield, T. K., Bond, J., Yu, Y., and Rehm, J. (2008). Age–period–cohort modelling of alcohol volume and heavy drinking days in the US National Alcohol Surveys: divergence in younger and older adult trends. Addiction, 104(1), 27-37. Adolescents who show externalizing behavior at age 14 and delayed puberty, 50% reported having used cannabis and 21%  used amphetamine and cannabis by age 21. Hayatbakhsh, M.R., Najman, J.M., McGee, T.R., Bor, W. and O'Callaghan, M.J. (2008).  Early pubertal maturation in the prediction of early adult substance use: a prospective study. Addiction, 104(1), 59-66. In men high alcohol consumption when age 16 increased chances of becoming heavy drinkers, low achievement score around the age of 12 and a drinking mother when one is 16 also increased the chances of becoming a heavy drinker. High externalizing behavior problems at age 9 and drinking more at age 16 increased the chances of men having alcohol use disorder at age 28. For women drinking at age 16 and high level of achievement at age 12 (as opposed to low for men) increased the chances of becoming a heavy drinker. Adolescent alcohol use in girls use is an important factor in the relation between externalizing behavior at age 9 and alcohol use at age 26. see Englund, M. M., Egeland, B., Oliva, E. M. and Collins, W.A. (2008). Childhood and adolescent predictors of heavy drinking and alcohol use disorders in early adulthood: a longitudinal development analysis. Addiction, 103(s1), 23-35.   Childhood and adolescent alcohol drinking on up to age 20 explains 43% of male and 31% of female problem drinking at age 42; 31% of male and 19% of female problem alcohol drinking at age 27; see Pitkanen, T., Kokko, K., Lyyra, A.-L., and Pulkkinen, L. (2008). A developmental approach to alcohol drinking behaviour in adulthood: a follow-up study from age 8 to age 42. Addiction, 103(s1), 48-68. There is a relation between engaging in sports and drug and alcohol use during adolescence and age 18 and alcohol abuse at age 28. Children at age 12 (who were heavily engaged in sports, were aggressive and showed behavioral problems) would engage in sports, and above average abuse of alcohol and other drugs at age 18; see Peck, S. C., Vida, M. and Eccles, J. S. (2008). Adolescent pathways to adulthood drinking: sport activity involvement is not necessarily risky or protective. Addiction, 103(s1), 69-83. Parent's drinking, taking risks, cigarettes and marijuana smoking, truancy (theft in H.S.), vandalism, property damage,  predicts alcohol abuse by age 35. College preparation predicts more heavy drinking at age 22 but reduced number of episodes of heavy drinking by mid-life. These effects are stronger in males; see Merline, A., Jager, J., and Schulenberg, J. E. (2008). Adolescent risk factors for adult alcohol use and abuse: stability and change of predictive value across early and middle adulthood. Addiction, 103(s1), 84-99. High electrical output in the right prefrontal cortex is related to aversion to risk and more emotion regulation and low electrical output from this region may be related to high risk behavior and low emotion regulation; see Gianotti, L.R.R., Knoch, D., Faber, P.L., Lehmann, D., Pascual-Marqui, R.D., Diezi, C., Schoch, C., Eisenegger, C. and Fehr, E. (2008). Tonic Activity Level in the Right Prefrontal Cortex Predicts Individuals' Risk Taking. Psych Science, 20(1), 33-38.      Neural Causes for the Paradox in Alcoholism The neural systems in compulsive drinking involves the turnover rates of dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NA), serotonin (5-HT), aspartate, glutamate, and GABA in brain. Binge drinking of alcohol causes neuronal functional deficit that reduces the effect of the inner emotions (anhedonia), which with further intake of alcohol changes; and that is the cause for the increase in seeking behavior for alcohol and alcohol intake; see Smith, J. E., Conchita, C., McIntosh, S. and Cunningham, C. C. (2008). Chronic binge-like moderate ethanol drinking in rats results in widespread decreases in brain serotonin, dopamine, and noreepinephrine turnover rates reversed by ethanol intake. Journal of Neurochemistry, 105(6), 2134-2155. Cigarettes / Smoking Mature adult smokers contain financial risks, underestimate health risks, and good health has lower value, they are irrational, impulsive and sensitive to controlling stimuli which illicit smoking; see Sloan, F. A. and Wang, Y. (2008). Economic theory and evidence on smoking behavior of adults. Addiction, 103 (11), 1777-1785. The prevalence or epidemics of waterpipe smoking is related to sweet flavor (Maassel), the perception that it has reduced harm, the cafe culture, media and the internet. Research is needed for understanding the health effects of the smoke through water, types of tobacco, amount of smoke inhalation, and the charcoal itself; see Maziak, W. (2008). The waterpipe: time for action. Addiction, 103(11), 1763-1767.         Perceiving oneself at work place to be of high socioeconomic class can promote smoking cessation.  Kouvonen, A., Oksanen, T., Vahtera, J., Vaananen, A., Vogli, R. D., Elovainio, M., Pentti, J., Leka, S., Cox, T., and Kivimaki, M. (2008). Work-place social capital and smoking cessation: the Finnish Public Sector Study. Addiction, 103(11), 1857-1865. Former smokers who abstain do not relapse because of smell of smoke on other people. In the first week, however, 34% find the smell pleasing and 54% were tempted to smoke; see McRobbie, H., Hajek, P., Locker, J. (2008). Does the reaction of abstaining smokers to the smell of other people's cigarettes predict relapse? Addiction, 103(11), 1883-1887. Thoughts and feelings about smoking are not connected strongly- and feeling intensity (worry) as a function of negative thoughts is related to considering quiting as opposed negative thought (cognition) by itself. Koblitz, A. R., Magnan, R. E., McCaul, K. D., O'Neill, H. K., Crosby, R. and Dillard, A. J. (2009). Smokers' thoughts and worries: A study using ecological momenrary assessment. Health Psych, 28(4), 484-492.      Cannabis Cannabis use early in life increases risk for nicotine dependence later on in life with genetic association. Agrawal, A., Lynskey, M. T., Pergadia, M. L., Bucholz, K., Heath, A. C., Martin, N. G., and Madden, P. A. F. (2008). Early cannabis use and DSM-IV nicotine dependence: a twin study. Addiction, 103(11), 1896-1904. Regular Cannabis use can increase the risk for Schizophrenia by 40%, more so if used before the age 15 Mental and Physical Disorders Arising from Endocannabinoid System Return                                Further Research..